To understand why breaking down cellulose is so difficult, you have to look at the geometry of the bonds you are trying to break. The α-bonds in starch create a coiled, helical structure that is easily accessible to water and enzymes. But the β-bonds in cellulose create a flat, linear ribbon, which get very close to one another and form strong hydrogen bonds, as you point out in your question. These stacked molecules make it extremely difficult for water to penetrate.

To maximize the speed of cellulose breakdown and subsequent browning, you could take any of these approaches:

1. Alkaline Environment (shifting the pH upward). This is the most effective way to accelerate the breakdown of hemicellulose and weaken the cellulose matrix. Pectin, which acts as the "intercellular glue," dissolves rapidly in alkaline conditions. To do this, add a small amount of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to the cooking water or directly onto the vegetables. The alkaline environment catalyzes the " β-elimination" reaction in the pectin and starts to loosen the cellulose fibers. This also lowers the activation energy required for the Maillard reaction, allowing browning to begin at lower temperatures and much faster than it would at a neutral or acidic pH. Obviously if you start in water you'll need to dry and roast or use some other high-heat cooking process to allow Maillard browning to occur at any reasonable pace. 

2. High-Pressure Steam. Cellulose has a high thermal stability, meaning boiling at the normal temp of 212°F (100°C) is relatively inefficient at breaking those β-bonds. Instead, use a pressure cooker. By increasing the pressure, you can raise the boiling point of water to around 250°F (121°C). This extra thermal energy significantly increases the rate of hydrolysis. When combined with the baking soda method mentioned above, you can turn fibrous vegetables into a browned puree in a fraction of the usual time. Here, it's even possible to brown without getting rid of the water. You might want to try this recipe: https://modernistcuisine.com/recipes/caramelized-carrot-soup-no-centrifuge-necessary/

3. Exogenous Cellulase Enzymes. If you want to be precise about releasing glucose without relying solely on blunt-force heat, you can use biotechnology. Treat the vegetable mash with a food-grade cellulase enzyme (often derived from Trichoderma reesei) before cooking. These enzymes specifically target and cleave the β-1,4-glycosidic bonds, converting the insoluble fiber directly into fermentable and "Maillard-ready" sugars. You would hold the vegetables at the enzyme's optimal temperature — usually around 120 – 140°F (49 – 60°C) — for thirty to sixty minutes before proceeding to high-heat cooking.

In poultry, pathogens like Salmonella and Campylobacter often colonize the intestinal tracts and skin of the birds. During industrial slaughter and feather-removal, it's common for these bacteria to be spread across the entire surface and into the muscle tissue. Because poultry muscle is relatively porous compared to bovine muscle, bacteria can migrate more deeply into the meat.

Beef, on the other hand, is significantly more dense than poultry. In intact cuts of beef, like a steak, pathogenic bacteria like E. coli are usually only on the exterior surface. Searing the outside of a steak to 145°F (63°C) effectively kills these surface pathogens, which is why the interior can safely remain rare. However, once beef is ground, those surface bacteria are mixed throughout the meat, necessitating an internal cooking temperature of 160°F (71°C). The same is true if the meat is punctured (such as with a Jaccard) — it will need to be cooked to 160°F since the bacteria are pushed inside the meat.

While fish certainly carry risks, they differ in type and magnitude. Salmonella is occasionally found in fish (usually due to contaminated water or poor handling), but it is far less common than in land-based poultry. The primary concerns with raw fish are parasites (like anisakid nematodes) and histamine poisoning. Tuna is uniquely less susceptible to many common parasites because it is a highly migratory, pelagic (open-ocean) fish. Most parasites require an intermediate host found in shallower, coastal waters. Because tuna spend much of their lives in the deep, open sea, their exposure to these specific life cycles is greatly reduced. "Sushi-grade" fish is typically frozen to temperatures as low as —31°F (—35°C), which is a kill step designed to destroy any parasites before consumption. This is not required in the U.S. for tuna or for some farmed fish.

Ceviche "cooks" fish through a process called acid denaturation. The citric acid from lime or lemon juice lowers the pH, causing the proteins to unwind and coagulate, which mimics the texture of heat-cooked fish. While this can reduce some bacterial load, it is not a reliable kill step for all pathogens or parasites, which is why using high-quality, previously frozen fish is essential. We don't eat raw poultry because of the high prevalence of Salmonella and E. Coli in grocery store chicken, and because of the permeable nature of the meat, which makes the risk-to-reward ratio far too high compared to the relatively lower and more manageable risks associated with beef and deep-sea fish.

Chef Michael

Does fish not have a risk for bacterias like salmonella, and what makes Tuna less susceptible to parasites? Why can we eat sushi or ceviche but not raw poultry?

Thanks so much!

👩🏼‍🍳

Tamis

The science of the tamis lies in its high-shear refinement. When you push a simmered waxy or "all purpose" potato (like a Yukon gold) while it's still very hot through the fine mesh of the tamis, you are essentially "atomizing" the potato flesh. Because waxy potatoes have higher pectin levels and smaller starch granules than starchy ones, they can withstand this intense mechanical work without immediately disintegrating into a grainy mess. However, this process also releases a significant amount of intracellular starch. By adding your warm cream and butter immediately after processing the potatoes, you immediately coat these starch molecules. This prevents the starch from forming the long, elastic chains that create a "gluey" texture you might get from over-working Russet potatoes. So the result is a silky mouthfeel in your purée. 

Beyond this use, the tamis is a great tool for homogenization and aeration for pastry and sauces. It's a great refinement tool anywhere that we want a more refined output than you can get through whisking without the overprocessing you might get from an immersion blender or other intense shearing tool. Examples might be a fruit coulis or a custard.

In the world of "modernist" starches, it is also used to create ultra-fine vegetable "flours" or to sift dry ingredients like cocoa or nut meals into a state of total fluffiness. In every application, the tamis serves as the final arbiter of texture, ensuring that the finished product has no "topography" on the palate—just a perfectly smooth, continuous transition of flavor. If you're making something from almond "flour," passing through a tamis will give you just the smallest "grains," which you can use for something else, so if you make macarons, for example, they will be very smooth.

Food Mill

A food mill uses a slanted blade to create a "wedge" of pressure against a perforated plate. As you turn the crank, the blade forces the soft pulp through the holes while the scraping action keeps the larger, tougher fibers (tomato skins, grape seeds, potato skin, etc.) trapped above the plate.

The key here is selective filtration. Because the mill does not use the high-shear scraping of a tamis, it preserves much of the cellular integrity of the food. This makes it great for high-volume tasks where you need a uniform texture but want to avoid the gluey results of a blender or processor. It's the go-to tool for a pomodoro or applesauce, because it incorporates just enough air to create a light, rustic body without emulsifying the natural oils into the water phase, which would turn a bright red sauce orange.

Ricer

The ricer is a simpler mechanical device that functions through extrusion. By using a plunger to force cooked food through a matrix of small holes, it separates the food into distinct "grains" (thus the name). Unlike the food mill or tamis, there is no lateral or circular motion — only downward pressure.

From a scientific perspective, the ricer is the gentlest way to process a starchy vegetable. When using a mealy Russet potato, the ricer allows the large, starch-filled cells to separate from one another along their natural boundaries (the middle lamella) without rupturing the cell walls. Because the cells remain intact, the starch stays "locked" inside, resulting in a mash that is incredibly fluffy and light rather than dense or sticky. This is why a ricer is the best tool for gnocchi. It ensures the potato remains dry and granular, allowing it to incorporate flour without becoming gummy.

The answer is — it depends on what you're cooking. For normal sautéeing, if you don't want to use Teflon or similar non-stick pans, then the best option is probably well-seasoned carbon steel. These pans are relatively light, strong, and if you take care of them they are very non-stick and will last forever. They need to be seasoned by first cleaning them very well (many manufacturers coat them in wax so they don't rust). Cooking potato peelings and salt in them until the peels are black works well (stir continuously). Then, subject them to very high heat when they are dry and with no oil. This is called "blueing," and it oxidizes the metal, turning it slightly blueish (unless they already come with this done, as many do). 

Teflon (and similar) pans have a reputation of being bad for health, but if you cook with them at medium and low temperatures there is no danger. They shouldn't be scratched simply because that ruins the non-stick coating, but if you do scratch them and some of the Teflon gets in your food, it won't hurt you. The problem is cooking in them at very high heat, which vaporizes some of the Teflon, and if you breath it in, you can get what's called Polymer Fume Fever, which is a temporary ailment that feels a little like the flu. Normal use and care of them does not pose health risks.

Some foods do not need oil (for example, you can cook down mushrooms in water without using any oil), but others (such as eggs) are very difficult to cook (e.g. over easy) with no fat whatsoever. 

Stainless steel pans wear well, but they are not as non-stick as seasoned carbon steel. Cast iron can also be seasoned and be somewhat non-stick (using oil), but they're not as good as carbon steel either (but better than stainless steel). Ceramic coating is also somewhat non-stick, and better than stainless steel as well, but not as good as carbon steel. 

Butter is an excellent fat for non-stick cooking of things like eggs, and it is more non-stick than oils like canola, olive oil, etc. For high-heat cooking, clarified butter or ghee are great. But avocado oil or other high-heat oils work well and are better for you. 

You asked about cleaning, and it is true that you should let pans cool down before cleaning. The reason for this is because cooling a hot pan quickly (e.g. with water) can warp it. People say you shouldn't use soap with cast iron, but that's not true. You just don't want to use harsh cleaners, Brillo pads, etc. that will remove the seasoning. 

I'm wondering which types of pans are best for cooking, specifically in using less oil, but also reducing any harmful chemicals in pan coatings etc.

I've used nonstick pans in the past, labeled safe without PFA's etc., but after a bit of use those pans seem to lose their non-stickiness and it gets more difficult to clean them after cooking. 

I've used stainless steel before, but struggle with foods sticking to those as well. 

I've seen ceramic and other options in the store, but it's overwhelming knowing which a truly chemically free and which are best for cooking.

Is there a go to pan for all-around-cooking with low oils? or are certain types of pans better for cooking meat, versus vegetables, etc.?

Do certain types of oils work better with certain hardware? And do certain levels of heat work best with certain types of pans?

Are there best practices for cleaning the pans after use? (I've heard to let a non stick pan cool before cleaning etc. But don't know if that's an old wives' tale).

Thank you so much!

As for what kills bacteria in food processing, your thought about sugar is really about osmotic pressure, which we'll learn more about soon. Bacteria don't get eaten by sugar, but high concentrations of sugar and/or salt draw water out of the bacterial cells, causing them to dehydrate and die. And even if the osmotic pressure isn't enough to kill these bacteria, the small amount of water available doesn't allow them to reproduce easily. This is why honey and cured meats don't spoil. Heat is the other primary killer since most probiotic bacteria die once temperatures exceed about 120°F, meaning any post-fermentation pasteurization renders the product essentially sterile. They can also die from their own metabolic waste. If a product like yogurt sits too long in a sealed container, the bacteria produce so much acid that the environment eventually becomes toxic to them.

The difference between fruit and vegetable fermentation mostly comes down to the dominant organism and the sugar levels. Vegetables are typically fermented by lactic acid bacteria, which consume the sugars and convert them into (lactic) acid, creating that sour, pickled flavor. Fruits are loaded with simple sugars (primarily fructose, glucose, and sucrose), and they have wild yeast living on their skins. When the fruit skin breaks, that yeast attacks the high sugar content and converts it into ethanol (the same alcohol in beer, wine, and spirits) and carbon dioxide. So, that’s the key distinction: vegetable fermentation generally results in acid, while fruit fermentation driven by yeast results in alcohol. 

In the real world, many different fermentations (in the broad sense of the word) typically happen at the same time. A great example of this is a sourdough starter or a kombucha SCOBY. In these cultures, yeasts and bacteria live together happily in a shared ecosystem. They often work like a relay team: the yeast might consume the sugar first to create alcohol, and then the bacteria consume that alcohol to produce acid. This microbial teamwork is why fermented foods often have complex, layered flavors that are both sour and yeasty, rather than just one or the other.

Other examples of "relay teams" are propionic bacteria we discussed with Swiss cheeses (where lactic acid bacteria first ferment sugars to lactic acid, then propionic bacteria ferment that lactic acid to propionic acid, releasing CO2 as a byproduct) and acetic acid bacteria that convert the alcohol produced by yeast into acetic acid (vinegar).

Chef Michael